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Construction is a general term meaning the art and science to form objectssystemsor organizations[1] and comes from Latin constructio from com- "together" and struere "to pile up" and Old French construction. In its most widely used context, construction covers the processes involved in delivering buildingsconstruction research paper, infrastructure e.
roads, bridges, tunnels and damsindustrial facilities and associated activities through to the end of their life. It typically starts with planningfinancingconstruction research paper, and designand continues until the asset is built and ready for use; construction also covers repairs and maintenance work, any works to expand, extend and improve the asset, and its eventual demolitionconstruction research paper, dismantling or decommissioning.
Although the construction industry promotes economic development and brings many non-monetary benefits to many countries, it is one of the most hazardous industries. The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Agea class of professional craftsmenlike bricklayers and carpentersappeared.
Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work, construction research paper. In the Middle Agesthe artisan craftsmen were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and, later, diesel- and electric-powered vehicles such as cranesconstruction research paper, excavators and bulldozers. Fast-track construction has been increasingly popular in the 21st century. Broadly, construction research paper, there are three sectors of construction: buildings, infrastructure and industrial: [6].
The industry can also be classified into construction research paper or markets. The Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System classify companies that perform or engage in construction into three subsectors: building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors.
There are also categories for professional services firms e. Building construction is the process of adding structures to areas of land, also known as real property sites. Typically, a project is instigated by or with the owner of the property who may be an individual or an organisation ; occasionally, construction research paper, land may be compulsorily purchased from the owner for public use.
Residential construction may be undertaken by individual land-owners self-buildby specialist house-buildersby property developersby general contractorsor by providers of public or social housing e. Where local zoning or planning policies allow, mixed-use developments may comprise both residential and non-residential construction e. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used e.
Costs of construction on a per square meter or per square foot basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, access routes, construction research paper, local regulations, economies of scale custom-designed homes are often more expensive to build and the availability of skilled tradespeople.
Depending upon the type of buildingnon-residential building construction can be procured by a wide range of private and public organisations, including local authorities, educational and religious bodies, transport undertakings, construction research paper, retailers, hoteliers, property developers, financial construction research paper and other private companies.
Most construction in these sectors is undertaken by general contractors. Civil engineering covers the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, tunnels, airports, water and sewerage systems, pipelines, and railways. Industrial construction includes offshore construction mainly of energy installations: oil and gas platformswind powermining and quarryingrefineriesbreweriesdistilleries and other processing plants, power stationssteel millswarehouses and factories.
Some construction projects are small renovations or repair jobs, where the owner may act as designer, paymaster and laborer for the entire project. However, more complex or ambitious projects usually require additional multi-disciplinary expertise and manpower, so the owner may commission one or more specialist businesses to undertake detailed planning, design, construction and handover of the work. Often the owner will appoint one business to oversee the construction research paper this may be a designera contractora construction manageror other advisor ; such specialists are normally appointed for their expertise in project delivery, and will help the owner define the project briefagree on a budget and scheduleliaise with relevant public authorities, construction research paper, and procure the services of other specialists the supply chaincomprising subcontractors.
Contracts are agreed for the delivery of construction research paper by all businesses, alongside other detailed plans aimed at ensuring legal, construction research paper, timely, on-budget and safe delivery of the specified works. Design, finance, and legal aspects overlap and interrelate. The design must be not only structurally sound and appropriate for the use and location, but must also be financially possible to build, and legal to use.
The financial structure must be adequate to build the design provided, and must pay amounts that are legally owed. Legal structures integrate design with other activities, and enforce financial and other construction processes. These processes also affect procurement strategies. Clients may, for example, appoint a business to design the project after which a competitive process is undertaken to appoint a lead contractor to construct the asset design—bid—build ; they may appoint a business to lead both design and construction design-build ; or they may construction research paper appoint a designer, contractor and specialist subcontractors construction management.
When applicable, a proposed construction project must comply with local land-use planning policies including zoning and building code requirements. A project will normally be assessed by the 'authority having jurisdiction', AHJ, typically the municipality where the project will be located for its potential impacts on neighbouring properties, and upon existing infrastructure transportation, social infrastructure, and utilities including water supply, sewerage, electricity, telecommunications, etc.
Data may be gathered through site analysissite surveys and geotechnical investigations. Construction normally cannot start until planning permission has been granted, and may require preparatory work to ensure relevant infrastructure has been upgraded before building work can commence.
Preparatory works will also include surveys of existing utility lines to avoid damage-causing outages and other hazardous situations.
Some legal requirements come from malum in se considerations, or the desire to prevent indisputably bad phenomena, e. explosions or bridge collapses. Other legal requirements come from malum prohibitum considerations, or factors that are a matter of custom or expectation, construction research paper, such as isolating businesses from a business district or residences from a residential district.
An attorney may seek changes or exemptions in the law that governs the land where the building will be built, either by arguing that a rule is inapplicable the bridge design will not cause a collapseor that the custom is no longer needed acceptance of construction research paper spaces has grown in the community, construction research paper.
During the construction of a building, a municipal building inspector usually inspects the ongoing work periodically to ensure that construction adheres to the approved plans construction research paper the local building code. Once construction is complete, any later changes made to a building or other asset that affect safety, including its use, expansion, construction research paper, structural integrity, and fire protectionusually require municipality construction research paper. Depending on the type of project, mortgage bankersaccountantsand cost engineers may participe in creating an overall plan for the financial management of a construction project, construction research paper.
The presence of the mortgage banker is highly likely, even in relatively small projects since the owner's equity in the property is the most obvious source of funding for a building project, construction research paper. Accountants act to study the expected monetary flow over the life of the project and to monitor the payouts throughout the process.
Professionals including cost engineers, estimators and quantity surveyors apply expertise to relate the work and materials involved to a proper valuation. Financial planning ensures adequate safeguards and contingency plans are in place construction research paper the project is started, and ensures that the plan is properly executed over the life of the project. Construction projects can suffer from preventable financial problems. Underbids happen when builders ask for too little money to complete the project.
Cash flow problems exist when the present amount of funding cannot cover the current costs for labour and materials; such problems may arise even when the overall budget is construction research paper, presenting a temporary issue, construction research paper. Cost overruns with government projects have occurred when the contractor identified change orders or project changes that increased costs, which are not subject to competition from other firms as they have already been eliminated from consideration after the initial bid, construction research paper.
Large projects can involve highly complex financial plans and often start with a conceptual cost estimate performed by a building estimator. As portions of a project are completed, they may be sold, supplanting one lender or owner for another, while the logistical requirements of having the right trades and materials available for each stage of the building construction project carries forward.
Public—private partnerships PPPs or private finance initiatives PFIs may also be used to help delivery major projects. A construction project is a complex net of construction contracts and other legal obligations, each of which all parties must carefully consider.
A contract is the exchange of a set of obligations between two or more parties, and provides structures to manage issues. For example, construction delays can be costly, so construction contracts set out clear expectations and clear paths to manage delays.
Poorly drafted contracts can lead to confusion and costly disputes. At the start of a project, legal advisors seek to identify ambiguities and other potential sources of trouble in the contract structures, and to present options for preventing problems. During projects, they work to avoid and resolve conflicts that arise. In each case, the lawyer facilitates an exchange of obligations that matches the reality of the project.
Design-bid-build is the most common and well-established method of construction procurement. In this arrangement, construction research paper, the architectengineer or builder acts for the client as the project coordinator. They design the works, prepare specifications and design deliverables models, drawings, etc. In parallel, there are direct contractual links between the client and the main contractor, construction research paper, who, in turn, has direct contractual relationships with subcontractors.
The arrangement continues until the project is ready for handover. Design-build became more common from the late 20th century, and involves the client contracting construction research paper single entity to provide design and construction. In some cases, the design-build package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents.
Often this will be a consortium involving a design firm and a contractor sometimes more than one of each. In the United States, departments of transportation usually use design-build contracts as a way of progressing projects where states lack the skills or resources, particularly for very large projects.
In a construction management arrangement, the client enters into separate contracts with the designer architect or construction research papera construction managerand individual trade contractors. The client takes on the contractual role, while the construction or project manager provides the active role construction research paper managing the separate trade contracts, and ensuring that they complete all work smoothly and effectively together.
This approach is often used to speed up procurement processes, to allow the client greater flexibility in design variation throughout the contract, to enable the appointment of individual work contractors, to separate contractual responsibility construction research paper each individual throughout the contract, and to provide greater client control. In the industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. Most commonly ie: in a design-bid-build projectthe design team is employed by i.
in contract with the property owner. Depending upon the type of project, a design team may include architectscivil engineersmechanical engineerselectrical engineersconstruction research paper, structural engineersfire protection engineersplanning consultantsarchitectural consultants, and archaeological consultants.
A 'lead designer' will normally be identified to help coordinate different disciplinary inputs to the overall design. This may be aided by integration of previously separate disciplines often undertaken by separate firms into multi-disciplinary firms with experts construction research paper all related fields, [20] or by firms establishing relationships to support design-build processes.
The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for construction research paper professionals trained in all phases of a project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the asset as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability.
For buildings, construction research paper engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge. Traditionally, design has involved the production of sketchesarchitectural and engineering drawingsand specifications.
Until the late 20th century, drawings were largely hand- drafted ; adoption of computer-aided design CAD technologies then improved design productivity, while the 21st-century introduction of building information modeling BIM processes has involved the use of computer-generated models that can be used in their own right or to generate drawings and other visualisations as well as capturing non-geometric data about building components and systems.
On some projects, work on-site will not start until design work is largely complete; on others, some design work may be undertaken concurrently with the early stages of on-site activity for example, work on a building's foundations may commence while designers are still working on the detailed designs of the building's internal spaces.
Some projects may include elements that are designed for off-site construction see also prefabrication and modular building and are then delivered to the site ready for erection, construction research paper or assembly.
Once contractors and other relevant professionals have been appointed and designs are sufficiently advanced, work may commence on the project site. Typically, a construction site will include a secure perimeter to restrict unauthorised access, site access control points, office and welfare accommodation for personnel from the main contractor and other firms involved in the project team, and storage areas for materials, machinery and equipment.
According to the McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction's definition, construction may be said to have started when the first feature of the permanent structure has been put in place, such as pile driving, or the pouring of slabs or footings. Commissioning is the process of verifying that all subsystems of a new building or other asset work as intended to achieve the owner's project requirements and as designed by the project's architects and engineers.
Maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinerybuilding infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, governmental, and residential installations. Demolition is the discipline of safely and efficiently tearing down buildings and other artificial structures.
Demolition contrasts with deconstructionwhich involves taking a building apart while carefully preserving valuable elements for reuse purposes recycling - see also circular economy.
Construction is a major source of employment in most countries; high reliance on small businesses, construction research paper under-representation of women are common traits. For example:.
10 Futuristic Construction technologies - Future constructions - Explore engineering
, time: 12:43Construction - Wikipedia
H.B. Fuller, experts in industrial adhesives, industrial coatings, industrial sealants and specialty materials in two dozen markets. Learn more The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) conducts research, development, and demonstration projects for the benefit of the public in the United States and internationally. As an independent, nonprofit organization for public interest energy and environmental research, we focus on electricity generation, delivery, and use in collaboration with the electricity sector, its stakeholders and Make Crayola DIY crafts and art projects for kids and adults with videos and step-by-step instructions. Explore Create-It-Yourself (CIY) Crayola crafts and find holiday arts and crafts, plus craft ideas to make at home. Create something today!
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